Jefferson

Predecessor អ្នកមុនៗ               swampy streets ផ្លូវដែលមានភក់           boardinghouse ផ្ទះជួល

civically minded គិតពីសុខភាពសាធារណៈ, គិតពីសុខមាលភាពសហគម

citizenry ប្រជាពលរដ្ឋ               pursuit ការស្វែងរក                               toile ធ្វើការលំបាក

agrarian នៃកសិកម្ម      reverse ត្រឡប់            expansionism វាទីនិយម

Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States and the leader of the Democratic Republicans, brought to the presidency a political philosophy and style with a marked difference from that of his two Federalist predecessors, George Washington and John Adams. Jefferson began his presidency with a symbolic action, choosing to walk to his inauguration through the swampy streets of the new capital city of Washington from his modest boardinghouse to the steps of the unfinished Capitol building. Through the eight years of his presidency (1801–1809), Jefferson acted in line with a clear set of beliefs that served as the foundation of his interpretation of the meaning of republicanism in America, one based upon a hardworking, civically minded, self-governing, free, and equal citizenry, and a limited role for the federal government.  

Jefferson's political thinking had clearly been shaped by the years that he had spent in Europe as the ambassador to France in the 1780s. There he had witnessed a society of extreme wealth and extreme poverty in the period just prior to the French Revolution, and he felt that a society with such excesses and extremes would not be able to offer the bulk of its citizens the life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness that he himself had described in the Declaration of Independence. He was opposed to the development of the factory system, having witnessed the squalid working and living conditions and difficult lives of the masses who toiled in the factories in England. When the Federalists had begun promoting the industrialization of America in the 1790s, he had been strongly opposed. He believed that the Federalist plan would create an industrialized society with the same extremes of wealth and poverty that he had witnessed in Europe. 

At the core of Jefferson's beliefs was that the best way for the young United States to achieve a republican form of government was as an agrarian republic. The country was blessed with large expanses of land and plenty of room for growth across the continent. He pictured a nation of small family farms grouped together in rural communities and believed that only a nation of hardworking farmers, owning their own land and not dependent on others for their existence, would share the concern for the good of the community that was necessary for a republic to thrive. 

Another event in Europe that helped to shape Jefferson's political vision was the publication in 1798 of "Essay on the Principle of Population." This influential essay was a pessimistic warning of the effect of an imminent population explosion. In the essay, the author warned that, because of the rapidly growing population, the food supply would soon be inadequate to feed the population, in England, throughout Europe, and even in America. Many Americans were alarmed by the essay. Jefferson, however, countered the alarm raised by the essay with the idea that the United States would always be able to feed its population if it developed a strong agrarian society as it expanded across the continent. 

Jefferson became president in 1801, and as he came into office he was determined to reverse the Federalist policies of the 1790s. His vision was to institute an expanded agrarian republic composed of self-governing civically oriented citizen-farmers and to reduce the size and scope of the federal government. The results of the agrarian expansionism that Jefferson had so favored were not always positive in that the movement west for lands led to a society in constant motion rather than a society of stable communities. However, Jefferson was instrumental in achieving a number of his goals. The size of the United States was expanded tremendously during his presidency through the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the country; the size of the federal government was reduced by cutting taxes, reducing the size of both the army and the navy, and decreasing the number of government workers; and the national debt that he had inherited from the Federalists was eliminated.

 

Global Jobless Numbers Likely to Rise This Year

 Jobs ការងារ                   released បានចេញផ្សាយ                      rose បានកើន

Economies ប្រទេសដែលមានសេដ្ឋកិច្ចជឿនលឿន                     estimated ដែលបានប៉ាន់ស្មាន

Unemployment ភាពអត់ការងារធ្វើ                                              recovery ការងើបឡើងវិញ

labor market ទីផ្សារការងារ                                                         worldwide ទូទាំងពិភពលោក

on-the- job experience បទពិសោធន៍ការងារជាក់ស្តែង

predictable policies គោលនយោបាយដែលអាចព្យាករណ៍បាន  reform កំណែទម្រង់

The International Labor Organization says nearly 200 million people are without jobs around the world.  And the ILO is warning of even higher unemployment this year. The United Nation Agency released a report called” Global Employment Trends 2013.” It says the number of unemployed worldwide rose by more than 4 million last year from the year before. This report says one fourth of this increase was in developed economies. This remaining 75 percent was in mainly developing economies in Asia, in African countries south of the Sahara Desert. The report also says an estimated 39 million people stopped looking for work last year.

This average length of unemployment increased sharply in developed economies. One-third of all job seekers in wealthy countries were unemployed for a year or more.

The ILO’s Director General, Guy Ryder, says the world’s economic recovery is not expected to be strong enough to reduce unemployment quickly. His group says the labor market is especially hard for young people. The ILO says 12.6 percent of people between the age of 15 and 24 are unemployed worldwide. It says more and more young people, who experience long term unemployment, stop looking for work. This prevents them from gaining needed on-the- job experience. Guy Ryder says, to create jobs, all countries must provide more predictable policies He says these include measures to raise wages and support buying. He says countries should enact reforms to strengthen their banking industries, so banks can provide credit.

 

Apple Computer

Astounding គួរអោយផ្ញាក់ផ្អើល      visionary អ្នកមានចក្ខុវិស័យ, អ្នកមានទស្សនវិស័យ

Encased ដាក់កេះ                           venture ប្រថុយប្រថាន               exponentially និទស្សន្ត

Apple Computer made an astounding leap forward over the first few years of its existence. The company was founded on April 1, 1976 by twenty-one-year-old Steven Jobs—a visionary with an amazing grasp of the potential for personal computers in the marketplace—and twenty-six-year-old Stephen Wozniak—a brilliant technical product designer. Their initial idea was to assemble computers for friends and associates in the limited arena of personal computer hobbyists, though this goal soon changed to one of making computer technology more widely available to nontechnical consumers. They realized that most consumers at the time thought of computers as playthings for hobbyists and as too expensive and too complex for general use rather than machines with wide-ranging potential for business and personal use.  

Jobs and Wozniak first began working together at the Home Brew Computer Club, an informal organization in Palo Alto, California, for young computer hobbyists. Together, Jobs and Wozniak raised $1,300 to start a company by selling Jobs' Volkswagen and Wozniak's scientific calculator. The name Apple was selected because it represented a nontechnical, nonthreatening, and natural type of product, one that would not be off-putting to their intended market. They designed their first machine in a bedroom in Jobs' parents' home and built the first working model in the garage of his parents' home.

Their first model, which was sold without a monitor, a keyboard, and a casing, sold for $666. It was the first single-board computer with a built-in video interface and with on-board read-only memory (ROM). Orders for this machine, the Apple I, which were mostly from computer hobbyists because the Apple I required the user to have a fair amount of technical knowledge (i.e., to wire and solder a keyboard and monitor), quickly reached the unbelievably high level of 600.  

To improve this model, Wozniak and Jobs created the Apple II, the first fully assembled and programmable personal computer. This model featured a fully encased computer, with a keyboard, a color monitor, and expansion capability for peripheral devices. Demand for this new version of the Apple quickly soared and inspired numerous other companies to create ad-on devices and software programs that could be used in conjunction with it. 

 In order to meet the increasing demand for the product, Jobs and Wozniak decided to expand their company. Mike Markkula, who was named chairman of the company in May 1979, secured a financial base for the company by investing some of his own money, securing a line of credit from the Bank of America, and raising more than a half million dollars from venture capitalists. The company's strategic plan was to attract outstanding personnel, to maintain a corporate culture that was conducive to innovation, to invest heavily in research and development to maintain technical leadership, to expand their market for initial computer purchases beyond computer hobbyists to new computer users, and to place an emphasis on the development and marketing of peripheral products to supplement initial computer purchases. 

Apple continued to expand rapidly over a few short years, and by 1980 the company had sold more than 130,000 computers. Revenues, which had been nonexistent in 1976, grew to $8 million in 1978 and escalated exponentially to $117 million in 1980. The company made a public offering of its stock in 1980 with one of the largest stock offerings in history. At the end of the first day of public trading of Apple stock, the company, which had been in existence for only four short years, had a market value of $1.2 billion.